Abstract
The quest for the definition of science took up scientific minds long ago. Different epochs and philosophical schools developed their own interpretations of the term which quite often were in the center of scientific debates. Nevertheless, the beginning of the 20th century gave rise to a new – official – definition which was to help state bodies in measuring and estimating the effect R&D activities had on the economy and society. The fact should be mentioned that this definition has never been systematically examined. Thus, this paper attempts to fill the gap. Its first part (published in the given issue) documents how research became the central concept for measuring and talking about science. It traces the history of official statistics on science over the 20th century, follows with looking at the concept of research through the categories or types of research like basic and applied research, and finally turns to definitions of research proper, centered on an institutionalized conception of science. Part II of the paper (see issue 3/2009) examines the controversies surrounding the official definition of science and the efforts undertaken to broaden it.
References
Achinstein P., Barker S.T. The Legacy of Logical Positivism. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1969.
Anthony R.N. Selected Operating Data: Industrial Research Laboratories. Boston: Harvard Business School, Division of Research, 1951.
Anthony R.N., Day J.S. Management Controls in Industrial Research Organizations. Boston: Harvard University, 1952.
Apel K.O. Understanding and Explanation: A Transcendental-Pragmatic Perspective. Mass. (Cambridge): MIT Press, 1984.
Arrow K.J. Economic Welfare and the Allocation of Resources for Invention / National Bureau of Economic Research. The Rate and Direction of Inventive Activity: Economic and Social Factors. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1962.
Barfield C.E. Science for the 21st Century: The Bush Report Revisited. Washington: AEI Press, 1997.
Barrows A. L. The Relationship of the NRC to Industrial Research / National Research Council. Research: A National Resource II: Industrial Research. 1941.
Bartlett H.R. The Development of Industrial Research in the United States / National Research Council. Research: A National Resource II: Industrial Research. 1941.
Belanger D.O. Enabling American Innovation: Engineering and the NSF. West Lafayette: Purdue University Press, 1998.
Ben-David J. The Scientists Role in Society: A Comparative Study. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1971.
Bernal J.D. The Social Function of Science. Cambridge (Mass.): MIT Press, 1973.
Bix A.S. Inventing Ourselves Out of Jobs? Americas Debate over Technological Unemployment, 1929-1981. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2000.
Blake R.M., Ducasse C. J., Madden E.H. Theories of Scientific Method: The Renaissance through the Nineteenth Century. New York: Gordon and Breach, 1989.
Bloor D. Knowledge and Social Imagery. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991.
Bochet J.-C. The Quantitative Measurement of Scientific and Technological Activities Related to R&D Development, CSR-S-2. UNESCO, 1974.
Bureau of Budget. R&D Estimated Obligations and Expenditures, 1951 Budget (9 January 1950). Washington, 1950.
Bureau of Labor Statistics. Scientific R&D in American Industry: A Study of Manpower and Costs. Bulletin № 1148. Washington, 1953.
Bush V. Science: The Endless Frontier. North Stratford: Ayer Co. Publishers, 1945.
Cochrane R.C. The National Academy of Sciences: The First Hundred Years 1863-1963. Washington: National Academy of Sciences, 1978.
Committee on Industry and Trade. Factors in Industrial and Commercial Efficiency (part I, chapter 4). London: Majestys Stationery Office, 1927.
Dearborn D.C., Kneznek R.W., Anthony R.N. Spending for Industrial Research, 1951-1952. Division of Research, Graduate School of Business Administration, Harvard University, 1953.
Dennis M.A. Accounting for Research: New Histories of Corporate Laboratories and the Social History of American Science // Social Studies of Science, 1987, v. 17. P. 479-518.
Department of Reconstruction and Supply, Research and Scientific Activity: Canadian Federal Expenditures 1938-1946. Ottawa. Government of Canada, 1947.
Dominion Bureau of Statistics. Federal Government Expenditures on Scientific Activities, Fiscal Year 1958-1959. Ottawa, 1960.
Dominion Bureau of Statistics. Industrial Research-Development Expenditures in Canada, 1955. Ottawa, 1956.
Dominion Bureau of Statistics. Survey of Scientific and Industrial Laboratories in Canada. Ottawa, 1941.
Dupree A.H. Science in the Federal Government: A History of Policies and Activities to 1940. New York: Harper and Row, 1957.
Dupree A.H. The National Academy of Sciences and the American Definition of Science / Oleson A., Voss J. (eds.). The Organization of Knowledge in Modern America, 1860-1920. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1976. P. 342-363.
Edgerton D.E.H. British Research and Development After 1945: A Re-Interpretation // Science and Technology Policy, April 1993. P. 10-16.
Edgerton D.E.H. Science and Technology in British Business History // Business History, 1987, v. 29, № 4. P. 84-103.
Edgerton D.E.H., Horrocks S.M. British Industrial Research and Development Before 1945 // Economic History Review, 1994, v. 67, № 2. P. 213-238.
England J.M. A Patron for Pure Science: The NSFS Formative Years, 1945-1957. Washington: NSF, 1982.
Federation of British Industries. Scientific and Technical Research in British Industry. London, 1947.
Freeman C. The Measurement of Scientific and Technical Activities, ST/S/15. Paris: UNESCO, 1969.
Freeman C., Young A. The Research and Development Effort in Western Europe, North America and the Soviet Union: An Experimental International Comparison of Research Expenditures and Manpower in 1962. Paris: OECD, 1965.
Gallie W.B. What Makes a Subject Scientific? // British Journal of the Philosophy of Science, 1957, № 8. P. 139-188.
Gerritsen J.C. Government Expenditures on R&D in France and the United Kingdom, EPA/AR/4209. Paris: OEEC, 1961.
Gerritsen J.C. Government Expenditures on R&D in the United States of America and Canada, DAS/PD/63.23. Paris: OECD, 1963.
Godin B. Measurement and Statistics on Science and Technology: 1920 to the Present. London: Routledge, 2005.
Godin B. Measuring Science: Is There Basic Research without Statistics? // Social Science Information, 2003, v. 42, № 1. P. 57-90.
Godin B. Research and Development: How the D got into R&D // Science and Public Policy, 2006, v. 33, № 1. P. 59-76.
Graham M.B.W., Pruitt B.H. R&D for Industry: A Century of Technical Innovation at Alcoa. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991.
Heerding A. The History of N. V. Philips Gloeilampenfabriken. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1986.
Hempel C., Oppenheim P. Studies in the Logic of Confirmation // Philosophy of Science, 1948, № 15 (135). P. 135-175.
Hertzfeld H.R. Definitions of R&D for Tax Purposes / O. D. Hensley (ed.). The Classification of Research. Lubbock (Texas): Texas Tech University Press, 1988. P. 136-137.
Holland M., Spraragen W. Research in Hard Times, Division of Engineering and Industrial Research. Washington: National Research Council, 1933.
Horrocks S.M. The Nature and Extent of British Industrial Research and Development, 1945-1970 // ReFresh, Autumn 1999, № 29. P. 5-9.
Houndshell D.A., Smith J.K. Science and Corporate Strategy: Du Pont R&D, 1902-1980. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1988.
Huxley J.S. Scientific Research and Social Needs. London: Watts and Co, 1934.
Kilgore H.M. The Governments Wartime Research and Development, 1940-1944: Survey of Government Agencies. Subcommittee on War Mobilization, Committee on Military Affairs. Washington, 1945.
Kleinknecht A. Measuring R&D in Small Firms: How Much Are We Missing? // The Journal of Industrial Economics, 1987, v. 36, № 2. P. 253-256.
Kleinknecht A., Reijnen J.O.N. More Evidence on the Undercounting of Small Firm R&D // Research Policy, 1991, № 20. P. 579-587.
Kline R. Construing Technology as Applied Science: Public Rhetoric of Scientists and Engineers in the United States, 1880-1945 // ISIS, 1995, № 86. P. 194-221.
Kuznets S. Inventive Activity: Problems of Definition and Measurement / NBER. The Rate and Direction of Inventive Activity: Economic and Social Factors. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1962.
Larsen O.N. Milestones and Millstones: Social Science at the NSF, 1945-1991. New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers, 1992.
Laudan R. Science and Hypothesis. Dordrecht: Reidel Publishing, 1981.
Layton E. T. American Ideologies of Science and Engineering // Technology and Culture, 1976, v. 17, № 4. P. 688-700.
Lhuillery S., Templй P. Lorganisation de la R&D dans les PMI-PME // Йconomie et Statistique, 1994, v. 271-272. P. 77-85.
Machlup F. The Production and Distribution of Knowledge in the United States. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1962.
Mees C.E.K. The Organization of Industrial Scientific Research. New York: McGraw Hill, 1920.
Merton R.K. The Sociology of Science: Theoretical and Empirical Investigations. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1973.
Messman K. A Study of Key Concepts and Norms for the International Collection and Presentation of Science Statistics, COM-75/WS/26. UNESCO, 1977.
Meyer-Thurow G. The Industrialization of Invention: A Case Study from the German Chemical Industry / ISIS, 1982, v. 73. P. 363-381.
Mowery D. Firm Structure, Government Policy, and the Organization of Industrial Research: Great Britain and the United States, 1900-1950 / Business History Review, 1984. P. 504-531.
Mowery D.C. (1983), Industrial Research and Firm Size: Survival, and Growth in American Manufacturing, 1921-1946: An Assessment // Journal of Economic History, 1983, v. 63, № 4. P. 953-980.
Mowery D.C. Industrial Research, 1900-1950 / B. Elbaum, W. Lazonick (eds.). The Decline of the British Economy. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1986.
Mowery D.C., Rosenberg N. The US Research System Before 1945 / D.C. Mowery, N. Rosenberg (eds.). Technology and the Pursuit of Economic Growth. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989.
NRC. Doctorates Conferred in the Sciences in 1920 by American Universities. Reprint and Circular Series, 12, November 1920.
NRC. Fellowships and Scholarships for Advanced Work in Science and Technology // Bulletin of the National Research Council, November 1923, v. 7, № 38, part II.
NRC. Funds Available in 1920 in the United States of America for the Encouragement of Scientific Research // Bulletin of the National Research Council, 1921, v. 2, № 9, part I.
NRC. Handbook of Scientific and Technical Societies and Institutions of the United States and Canada // Bulletin of the National Research Council. May 1927, № 58.
NRC. Research Laboratories in Industrial Establishments of the United States of America // Bulletin of the National Research Council, March 1920a, v. 1. P. II.
NRC. Research: A National Resource (II): Industrial Research. National Resources Planning Board, Washington: USGPO, 1941.
NSF. Research and Development in Industry, NSF 60-49. Washington, 1957.
NSF. Science and Engineering in American Industry: Final Report on a 1953-1954 Survey, NSF 56-16. Washington, 1956.
NSF. Trends in Funds and Personnel for Research and Development, 1953-1961, Reviews of Data on R&D, 33, April 1962, NSF 62-9.
National Resources Committee. Research: A National Resource (I): Relation of the Federal Government to Research. Washington: USGPO, 1938.
National Science Foundation. Federal Funds for Science: Federal Funds for Scientific R&D at Nonprofit Institutions 1950-1951 and 1951-1952. Washington, 1953.
Nelson R.R. The Simple Economics of Basic Research // Journal of Political Economy, 1959, № 67. P. 297-306.
Novick D. The ABC of R&D // Challenge, June 1965. P. 13.
Novick D. What do we Mean by R&D? // Air Force Magazine, October 1960. P. 114-118.
OECD Frascati Manual. The Measurement of Scientific and Technical Activities: Proposed Standard Practice for Surveys of Research and Development, DAS/PD/62.47. Paris: OECD, 1962.
OECD Frascati Manual. The Measurement of Scientific and Technical Activities: Proposed Standard Practice for Surveys of Research and Experimental Development. Paris: OECD, 1970.
OECD Frascati Manual. The Measurement of Scientific and Technical Activities: Proposed Standard Practice for Surveys of Research and Experimental Development. Paris: OECD, 1993.
OECD. R&D and Innovation Surveys: Formal and Informal R&D, DSTI/STII/(91)5, 1991.
OSRD. Cost Analysis of R&D Work and Related Fiscal Information. Budget and Finance Office. Washington, 1947.
Owens L. The Counterproductive Management of Science in the Second World War: Vannevar Bush and the OSRD // Business History Review, 1994, № 68. P. 533-537.
Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology / C.T. Onions (ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1966.
Perazich G., Field P.M. Industrial Research and Changing Technology. Works Projects Administration, National Research Project, report № M-4. Pennsylvania: Philadelphia, 1940.
Pickering A. (ed.). Science as Practice and Culture. Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1992.
Presidents Scientific Research Board (PSRB). Science and Public Policy. Washington: USGPO, 1947.
Presidents Scientific Research Board. Science and Public Policy. New York: Arno Press, 1980.
Recommendation Concerning the International Standardization of Statistics on Science and Technology. Paris: UNESCO, 1978.
Reich L.S. The Making of American Industrial Research: Science and Business at GE and Bell, 1876-1926. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1985.
Rosa E.B. Expenditures and Revenues of the Federal Government. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Sciences, 95. May 1921. P. 26-33.
Rosa E.B. Scientific Research: The Economic Importance of the Scientific Work of the Government // Journal of the Washington Academy of Science, 1920, v. 10, № 12. P. 341-382.
Sanderson M. Research and the Firm in British Industry, 1919-1939 // Science Studies, 1972, v. 2. P. 107-151.
Sapolsky H.M. Science and the Navy: The History of the Office of Naval Research. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990.
Schmookler J. Bigness, Fewness, and Research // Journal of Political Economy, 1959, v. 67, № 6. P. 628-632.
Schopman J. Industrious Science: Semiconductor Research at the N. V. Philips Gloeilampenfabriken, 1930-1957 // Historical Studies in Physical and Biological Sciences, 1989, v. 19, № 1. P. 137-172.
Shapley W.H. Problems of Definition, Concept, and Interpretation of R&D Statistics / The Methodology of Statistics on R&D. NSF 59-36. Washington, 1959.
Shinn T. The Genesis of French Industrial Research, 1880-1940 // Social Science Information, 1980, v. 19, № 3. P. 607-640.
Shorter Oxford English Dictionary / W. Little, H.M. Fowler, J. Coulson (eds.). Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1959.
Social Science Research Council. Research: A National Resource (III): Business Research. National Resources Planning Board, Washington: USGPO, 1941.
Statistics Canada. Estimation of Research and Development Expenditures in the Higher Education Sector, Service Bulletin, 88-001, September 1993.
The Annual Report of the Secretary on the State of the Finances for the Fiscal Year ended June 30. Washington, 1951.
The Shorter Oxford English Dictionary / W. Little, H.M. Fowler, J. Coulson. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1959.
UNESCO. Guide to the Collection of Statistics in Science and Technology, ST.77/WS/4. Paris, 1977.
US Department of Commerce and Bureau of Census. Research and Development: 1940 to 1957 / Historical Statistics of the United States, 1957.
Websters 20th Century Dictionary of English Language. New York: Guild Inc., 1939.
Whitney W.R., Hawkins L.A. Research in Pure Science / M. Ross, M. Holland, W. Spraragen (eds.). Profitable Practice in Industrial Research: Tested Principles of Research Laboratory Organization, Administration, and Operation. New York: Harper and Brothers Publishers, 1932.
Winch P. The Idea of Social Science and its Relation to Philosophy. New York: Routledge, 1958.
Wise G., Whitney W.R. General Electric, and the Origins of US Industrial Research. New York: Columbia University Press, 1985.
Yeo R. Defining Science: William Whewell, Natural Knowledge and Public Debate in Early Victorian Britain. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993.
Zachary G.P. Endless Frontier: Vannevar Bush, Engineer of the American Century. Cambridge (Mass.): MIT Press, 1999.
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.